Gender relationships in one of the two course plays Essay Example for Free

Gender relationships in one of the two course plays Essay Show how gender relationships in one of the two course plays is used by the playwright to throw light on our understanding of the main character, and the overall themes of the play. A view from the bridge is based in Brooklyn, an Italian community set in the 1950s. This particular part of the 20th century was seen as a rather sexist era. Men were a lot more dominant, women were known to stay at home cooking and cleaning-like every wife seems to do today! However aside from that, men felt like they had to be men all the time. They felt like if they expressed their feelings, talked about their troubles or cried, these men would be laughed at and ridiculed. Eddie Carbone is a hard working longshoreman who works on the docks in his local area. Eddie is a typical bloke; he is a proud and stubborn man but is a loving husband to his wife Beatrice and a caring father figure to his niece Catherine. To the audience in the first part of the play Eddies comes across as the typical over protective father, however as the play progresses his feelings for Catherine become obvious that they are a lot heavier than what we are led to believe. Throughout the play we discover Eddie has fallen in love with his niece but his feelings are not sexual, in my opinion it is an obsessive need that cant be controlled as realized by Alfieri, Something perversely pure calls to me from his memory not purely good, but himself purely, for he allowed himself to be wholly known. Alfieri realizes his feelings for Catherine are exceptionally powerful and that their would be nothing that Eddie could do to control them or dissolve them. Eddie tries to open up to Alfieri but cant quite get the words out of what he wants to say. There is also one other particular part of the play when Eddie goes to see Alfieri in his office. Eddie goes to seek advice in order to prevent Catherine from marrying Rodolpho. Alfieri subtly mentions Eddies feelings but doesnt quite mention them in so many words. Alfieri says, When the law is wrong its because it is unnatural, but in this case it is natural and a river will drown you if you buck it now. Let her go. Alfieri is saying that it is illegal for Eddie to get involved with Catherine sexually. It goes against the natural order. However the only advice Alfieri can give is to turn Rodolpho and Marco in to immigration, but with them being family it wouldnt be a wise move. Eddies love for Catherine is so strong that he is willing to go to any means necessary to stop her marrying Rodolpho, making the call to immigration the only way out of the predicament. Eddie calls immigration, aware of his betrayal to Beatrice but he is doing it out of love for Catherine. Beatrice also realizes Eddies feelings for Catherine, in one [particular scene Eddie ad Beatrice have a slight disagreement over Catherine which later leads to an argument over lack of sex. Beatrice wants to know, When am I gonna be a wife again, Eddie? Beatrice says it in this context rather than come straight out and says when are we going to have sex again. This way avoids embarrassment but still gets the point across without having to actually say it. Beatrice wants to talk about what is happening but she cant get Eddie to open up to her. Eddies feelings are putting a strain on the marriage, sexually, physically and emotionally. But Eddie,

Anti Head Lice Essay Example for Free

Anti Head Lice Essay Abstract. The present study focused on the separation and identification of the active compounds against head lice from the hexane extract of Annona squamosa L seed. Chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques revealed that two major compounds of the hexane seed extract were oleic acid and triglyceride with one oleate ester. The yields of these compounds were 13.25% and 7.74% dry weight, respectively. The compounds were tested in vitro against head lice, comparing to the crude hexane extract of the seed. The triglyceride with one oleate ester and the crude hexane extract diluted with coconut oil 1:1. These compounds were found to kill all tested head lice in 49, 11 and 30 minutes, respectively. The triglyceride ester can be used as a marker for quantitative analysis of the active compound for quality control of the raw material A. squamosa seed and its extract. This first finding will be useful for quality assessment and the chemical stability of the antihead lice preparation from this plant. INTRODUCTION Annona squamosa L. (Custard apple) is a plant belonging to the family Annonaceae. It is popularly cultivated in all parts of Thailand, especially in the northeast, as a sweet fruit. The seed of this plant is well known for killing head lice in many countries (Boonyaprapasara, 1998). The human head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis) is a small insect causing a public health problem, especially in poor sanitary conditions. In Thailand, research has shown the anti-head lice activity of A. squamosa. Puapatanakul (1980) reported that the extract of custard apple seeds in coconut oil at the ratio of 1:2 can kill 98% of head lice within two hours, while the leaf extract shows less potency. Gritsanapan et al (1996) found that the petroleum ether extract of the leaves and seeds dissolved in coconut oil at a ratio of 1:1, kill 90% of head lice in vitro by 53 and 26 minutes, respectively. A 20% cream (oil/ water) preparation of petroleum ether extract of custard apple seeds can kill 93% of head lice Correspondence: Wandee Gritsanapan, Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, 447 Si Ayutthaya Road, Ratchathewi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand. Tel: +66 (0) 2644-8677 ext 1500, 5530; Fax: +66 (0) 2644-8701 E-mail: [emailprotected] 532 within 3 hours (Areekul and Chaikledkaew, 1994, personal communication). Gritsanapan et al (1996), reported that 20 g of 20% freshly prepared cream can kill 94.5Â ±9.1% of head lice within 3 hours of application to school girls’ hair. Tiangda et al (2000) found the cream preparation of custard apple seed is biologically stable for at least 12 months. However, it is easier to control the quality and stability of the preparation by quantitative analysis of the active chemical components. The active compounds of A. squamosa seed extract have not been reported elsewhere. The present study, therefore, is focused on the isolation and identification of the anti-head lice components in the seeds of A. squamosa. MATERIALS AND METHODS Preparation of plant extracts A. squamosa seeds were purchased from Pak Chong District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand in October 2004. The samples were identified by comparison with the herbarium at Forest Herbarium, Department of National Parks, Wild-life and Plant Conservation, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Bangkok. The voucher specimen (WAS 0704) has been deposited at the Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol UniVol 37 No. 3 May 2006 A NTI-HEAD L ICE EFFECT OF A. SQUAMOSA versity, Bangkok, Thailand. The seeds were washed and dried in a hot air oven at 55Â ºC for 24 hours. The dried seeds were ground in an electric mill. Extraction and separation of major compounds The powdered seeds of A. squamosa (1.1 kg) were macerated with hexane (23 l) for three days at room temperature. The mixture was filtered and the filtrate was concentrated by a rotary evaporator and evaporated in a hot water bath until a constant weight (282.4 g) was obtained. The extract (75 g) was separated using silica gel column chromatography (400 g silica). Hexane (CH2Cl2 (1:1) 100% CH 2Cl 2 : CH 2Cl2 : MeOH (1:1)) was used as an eluent. Fifty milliliter fractions were collected and the fractions with the same TLC pattern (SiGF 254 hexane: ethyl acetate 10:3) were combined. The fractions containing two major spots (R f 0.20 and 0.72) were eluted in 100% CH2Cl2 fractions. To isolate pure compounds, the fractions containing major compounds were combined and concentrated. The mixture wa s further fractionated using silica gel column chromatography (200 g). Isocratic elution by hexane: ethyl acetate (10:3) was performed (approximately 25 ml per fraction). The fractions with the same TLC pattern were combined to yield five fractions. The second and fourth fractions gave compound AS1 (38.7 g) and compound AS2 (22.6 g), respectively. Compounds AS1 and AS2 were purified to give pure compounds. Testing for anti-head lice activity of pure compounds and crude extract The hexane extract and the two major pure compounds were tested for anti-head lice activity according to the method of McCage (2002). The extract and pure compounds were separately dissolved in coconut oil at dilutions of 1:1 to 1:8 w:w. The same amount of each solution (0.05 ml) was put in a Petri dish and spread in a thin layer over a 2 cm2 area. Seven equal sized head lice collected from school girls’ hair were placed in the Petri dish containing solutions of the extract and the two major pure compounds. Non-moving head lice, which were determined as dead lice, were counted every 5 minutes until all the lice were dead. A commercial anti-head Vol 37 No. 3 May 2006 lice cream, Hexinâ„ ¢, which is gamma benzene hexachloride (1% w/w) and coconut oil were used as a positive and negative controls, respectively. RESULTS Compound AS1 was a pale yellow oil, yielded 13.25% w/w of dried seeds. TLC (SiGF254, hexane:ethyl acetate 10:3) had an Rf value of 0.20 (Fig 1). The EI mass spectrum had a molecular ion peak at m/z 283.2 [M+1] and a prominent peak at m/z 264.3. The IR spectrum of compound AS1 revealed absorption peaks at 3000-2930 (O-H stretch), 2850 (C-H stretch), and 1700 (C=O stretch, carboxylic) cm-1. The 1H NMR spectrum of compound AS1 indicated the presence of one methyl proton at ÃŽ ´ 0.90 (3H, t, H-18); a methylene proton group at ÃŽ ´ 1.26 (20H, m, H-4-7 and H-12-17); two methylene proton groups at ÃŽ ´1.65 (2H, m, H-3); four methylene proton groups at ÃŽ ´ 2.00 (4H, m, H-8, 11); two methylene proton groups at ÃŽ ´ 2.35 (2H, t, H-2); two olefinic methane proton groups at ÃŽ ´ 5.35 (2H, m, H-9,10) and the broad peak of a hydroxyl proton at ÃŽ ´ 10.15 (1H). The 13C NMR spectrum and Distortionless Enhancement by Polarization Transfer (DEPT) exhibited 16 carbon resonances, revealing the presence of thirteen methylene carbons, one methyl carbon, two olefinic methine carbons and one carbonyl carbon. These spectral data suggested that compound AS1 was a fatty acid. Comparing the NMR spectra of compound AS1 with Aldrich Library (1993) of 13C and 1H FT NMR spectra, confirmed the molecular structure of AS1 was an oleic acid (Fig 2). Compound AS2 was also pale yellow oil, yielded 7.74% w/w of dried seeds. The Rf value (SiGF254, hexane: ethyl acetate 10:3) was 0.72 (Fig 1).The 1H NMR spectrum looked similer to the AS1 spectrum, with additional signals at ÃŽ ´ 4.15 and 4.30. The IR spectrum of compound AS2 showed bands at 2925 (C-H stretch) and 1746 (C=O stretch, ester) cm-1. 533 S OUTHEAST ASIAN J T ROP MED P UBLIC H EALTH Table 1 Head lice killing time of the crude extract and pure compounds from Annona squamosa seeds (n=3). Test sample Dilution (w:w) Killing time (min) 30.67Â ±4.04 34.33Â ±4.04 41.00Â ±3.61 55.00Â ±5.00 49.33Â ±3.06 54.67Â ±5.51 59.00Â ±6.56 61.33Â ±4.16 11.00Â ±1.00 12.00Â ±2.00 16.00Â ±1.00 22.33Â ±2.52 180 180 1 2 3 Hexane crude extract 1:1 1:2 1:4 1:8 Oleic acid (AS1) 1:1 1:2 1:4 1:8 Triglyceride with one oleate ester (AS2) 1:1 1:2 1:4 1:8 Coconut oil (-ve control) Not diluted Hexinâ„ ¢ (+ve control) Not diluted 1 = AS1, 2 = AS2, 3 = hexane crude extract. Fig 1–TLC chromatogram of AS1, AS2 and hexane crude extract. H After comparing the NMR spectra of compound AS2 with Aldrich Library (1913) of 13C and 1 H FT NMR spectra, compound AS2 was felt to be a triglyceride with one oleate ester (Fig 2). The hexane crude extract of compound AS1 (oleic acid) and compound AS2 (triglyceride with one oleate ester) from Annona squamosa seeds showed in vitro anti-head lice activity as summarized in the Table 1. The data show that the triglyceride with one oleate ester was the most active compound against head lice. It killed all tested head lice within 11 minutes when diluted with coconut oil to a ratio of 1:1. Both the Hexinâ„ ¢ and the coconut oil killed all the head lice within a period of 180 minutes. H COOH (CH2) 7 H3C (CH2) 7 Oleic acid O CH2O CHO CH2O C R1 R2 Oleate Triglyceride with one oleate ester R 1, R2 = H/ other fatty acid Fig 2–Structure of separated compounds from Annona squamosa seed. DISCUSSION The triglyceride with one oleate ester in coconut oil (1:1) was significantly more active against head lice than gamma benzene hexachloride 1% cream and the hexane crude extract. These data are supported by previous reports (Gritsanapan et al, 1996; Tiangda et al. 534 2000). This result is useful for the standardization of Annona squamosa seed and its extract. The active compound may be used for the qualitative assessment of the chemical stability of the custard apple cream preparation. This is the a first report of the active anti-head lice components from A. squamosa seeds. Vol 37 No. 3 May 2006 A NTI-HEAD L ICE EFFECT OF A. SQUAMOSA REFERENCES Aldrich Chemical Co, Inc. The Aldrich Library of 13C and 1H FT NMR Spectra. 1st ed, 1993. Boonyaprapasara N, Chokchaicharoenporn O, eds. Samunprai Maipuenbaan. Vol. 2. Bangkok: Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, 1998: 454 (in Thai). Gritsanapan W, Somanabandhu A, Titirungruang C, Lertchaiporn M. A study on the antiparasitic activities and chemical constituents of extracts from the leaves and seeds of custard apple (Annona squamosa Linn.). Proceedings of Third NRCT- JSPS Joint Seminar, 1996: 209-15. McCage CM, Ward SM, Paling CA, Fisher DA, Flynn PJ, McLaughlin. Development of a paw paw herbal shampoo for the removal of head lice. Phytomedicine 2002; 9: 743-8. Puapatanakul O. Clinical studies of Annona squamosa seeds and leaves for the treatment of head lice. 1980: 37 pp (in Thai). T iangda C, Gritsanapan W, Sookvanichsilp N, Limchalearn A. Antihead-lice activity of Annona squamosa seed extract. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 2000;31 (suppl 1): 174-7. Vol 37 No. 3 May 2006

Use Of Karyotype Analysis In Genetic Counseling Biology Essay

Use Of Karyotype Analysis In Genetic Counseling Biology Essay Complete set of metaphase chromosome is called karyotype. It is widely used to detect the chromosomal abnormalities that are related to the genetic diseases and various type of cancer. As the biomedical science advances, various kinds of techniques are used to analyze the human karyotype. These karyotype analysis are widely used in genetic counseling to minimize the risk of having unfortunate. By doing so, individual and families are realized to implement the genetic testing. In genetic counseling, knowledge of karyotype analysis is greatly determined the inheritable diseases including cancer. Moreover, Pedigree construction based on Mendelian principles is used in old days to know the pattern of inheritance. In recent year, FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization), PCR (polymerase chain reaction), CGH (comparative genomic hybridization) and SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) arrays are developed for the promising future of human genetics. Among them FISH is the most currently diagnostic tool for the various chromosomal aberrations that can be visible in karyotype analysis. The most tested chromosomes are 13, 18, 21, 22, X and Y that account for 85% of chromosomal abnormalities (Rodrigo et al., 2010). But now, genetic scientists have been carried out the approaches towards all chromosome analysis. On the other hand, the high risk society is greatly interested to do pre pregnancy counseling to reduce the inheriting defective gene for the next generation . Therefore, use of karyotype analysis is more and more improved in genetic counseling for the screening and diagnosis as well as the treatment and prevention. Karyotyping Karyotype construction and analysis is the powerful diagnostic method to identify the chromosomal studies in human genetic. Karyotyping is usually done at the metaphase of cell cycle in which the chromosome structure is the most condensed. Therefore, it is also known as complete set of metaphase chromosome (Nie et al., 1998). There are 46 chromosomes in human (22 autosomes and sex chromosomes). Karyotype show the number of chromosomes, the sex chromosome content, the presence or absence of individual chromosomes and the nature and extent of any structural abnormalities. Karyotyping can be accessed under a microscope to examine the number and structural variants which must be size of 3 Mb or more. Only DNA sequencing can be observed smaller alterations (Klein and Tibboel, 2010). Chromosomes in human karyotype are categorized into seven depend on their bands after staining procedure. Each group is arranged into A to G defined by size and centromere position. These banding patterns help to identify specific defect regions on the chromosome. Thus, the any defect in chromosome region can be described as an accurate address. For example; 1q2.4 defines as chromosome number 1, q arm, region 2 and the banding 4 (Trask, 2002). Method For karyotype construction, the specimen can be taken from the white blood cell, skin cells, amniotic fluid cells and the chorionic villus cells. Then the cells are prepared to enter the mitosis and arrested in the stage of metaphase. Moreover, these preparations are treated with trypsin and staining to get the banding pattern. After that, video camera attached microscope directly send the images to the computer to generate the karyotypes (Yang et al., 2000). Generally, it could be used to determine if chromosome of an adult have abnormality or defect that can be passed on to a child. The origin of complex chromosomal defect is identified by using standard G-band procedures, fluorescent staining and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). FISH is a recent technology to detect the specific chromosome structure by using particular DNA probes. This method is more accurate and enables to see the micro-deletion and exact break point involved in each chromosome (Ligon et al., 2997). Doing the karyotype analysis is benefit in pregnant women at the age of 35 and having the history of previous child with defect. Because of the risk of chromosome abnormalities dramatically increased in advanced maternal age and if the mother is an X-linked carrier, the recurrent risk is 1 to 2%. Therefore, antenatal screening tests including karyotyping are carried out to a defined population who are at risk of having a specific condition. Different tests are done in different stages of pregnancy. Chorionic villus sampling is offered at 11-12 weeks of pregnancy, Amniocentesis is done at 16 weeks and fetal blood sampling is carried out at 18-22 weeks of pregnancy. Although these all procedures are having risk of miscarriage, they are suitable for the chromosomal and DNA analysis (Callen et al., 1988). Especially, for the detecting of trisomies in chromosome 13, 18, 21, X and Y which account for more than 85% of all fetal aneuploidies. As a benefit, if a couple with a known risk to offspring, they can choose options to avoid or plan further pregnancy. If the male partner is affected, the couple has option for artificial insemination of sperm from a donor. If the female is affected with a dominant condition or X-linked carrier, the couple has option for egg donation from another female. Moreover, the relatively new procedure is pre-implantation genetic diagnosis. Initially, this process requires in vitro fertilization. If the fertilization occurred, one cell is removed from the stage of blastocyst and then investigated for the chromosomal disorder. If there is no defect, it will be returned to the uterus (Fukuda et al., 2007). In the molecular genetics, DNA testing is divided into four main categories which are diagnostic testing, carrier detection, pre symptomatic testing for adult onset diseases and prenatal diagnosis. In the genetic counseling, karyotype analysis is widely used in carrier detection incase of balanced translocation carrier, autosomal dominant recessive, X-linked female carrier disorder in order to evaluate the risk of having an affected child. Furthermore, karyotyping can be used as a pre symptomatic or predictive test in some individual who are at risk of an adult onset disorder to determine whether or not they carry the mutated gene for these disorders. This test is value for autosomal dominant condition because of having a chance is 50% if one parent is affected. For example, familial adenomatous polyposis, colon cancer, Huntington disease (Bodmer et al., 1991). Chromosomal aberrations Abnormalities of the chromosomes, these are large enough to be visible under the light microscope are termed chromosomal aberrations. They are usually classified into numerical abnormalities and structural abnormalities. Numerical aberration is the disordered of chromosome due to error in separation of chromosome in cell division. Aneuploidy represents gain or loss of a specific whole chromosome due to failure of paired chromosome in meiosis. The one with extra copy of chromosome is called trisomy and the one with missing copy of that chromosome is called monosomy. These can be seen either autosome or sex chromosome. Autosomal trisomy will result in early miscarriage and monosomy of an autosomal chromosome is not compactable with life. Autosomal trisomy is associated with increased maternal age (Harper et al., 1995). Similarly, polyploidy represents a complete extra set of chromosomes due to fertilization by two sperms (dispermy) or failure in maturation divisions of either the eggs or the sperm. For examples, triploidy and tetraploidy depending on the number of extra sets of chromosomes. Triplody occurs in 2% of all conception but early spontaneous abortion is usual (Munne and Cohen, 1998). The most commonly seen autosomal aneuploidies are trisomy 21-Downs syndrome (47, XX, +21 or 47, XY, +21), trisomy 18-Edwards syndrome (47, XX, +18 or 47, XY, +18), trisomy 13-Pataus syndrome (47, XX, +13 OR 47, XY, +13). Sex chromosomal aneuploidies are Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY), XYY syndrome (47, XYY), Triple X syndrome (47, XXX) and Turner syndrome (45, X). Autosomal monosomy is mostly lethal and autosomal trisomy is relatively more common (Rodrigo et al., 2010). The commonest autosomal trisomies are Downs syndrome, Patau syndrome and Edwards syndrome. The kayotype of Downs syndrome is 47, +21, an extra copy of chromosome 21. It occurs in 1 in 900 live births and leading cause of childhood mental retardation and heart defect (Wald et al., 1997). Patau syndrome is usually found at the time of doing cytogenetic analysis in malformed children. It also revealed extra chromosome at chromosome number 13 (47, +13) (Rasmussen et al., 2003). Another trisomy is the Edwards syndrome (47, +18). It accounts for a frequency of 1 in 11,000 live births (Massiah et al., 2008). Aneuploidy of the sex chromosome Aneuploidy of the sex chromosomes is more common than the autosomal aneupolidy but have less impact. Unlike the autosome, monosomy for Y chromosome is always lethal whereas monosomy for the X chromosome is a viable condition. The commonest syndromes that have ever seen in clinical setting are Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Triple X syndrome and XYY syndrome (Smith et al., 1960). Monosomy of X chromosome results in 45, X karyotype due to non-disjunction in either parent. It is estimated that 1% of all conception from which 95 to 99% of all 45, X embryos die before birth. They have significant defect in height, sexual development and fertility but there is no mental retardation (David et al., 1986). The karyotype of Klinefelter syndrome is 47, XXY. The extra X chromosome of maternal origin is 56% and paternal is 44%. It is usually arise from non-disjunction at either the first or second meiotic division (Lamb et al., 1996). For example, if the father produces XY sperm that is cross over with maternal X ovum to produce XXY. This is the single commonest cause of hypogonadism and infertility in male. Overall the birth incidence of 47, XXY is 1 in 1000 male with an increased risk at maternal age and azoospermatic infertile males (Steinberger et al., 1965). And the karyotype of super female syndrome is 47, XXX which also known as triple X syndrome. It is usually appears as clinically normal but 15- 25% are mildly mentally handicapped. About three quarter of the affected females is fertile of which one- half of their offspring would expect to have this syndrome (Michalak et al., 1983). Furthermore, another karyotype defect associated with personality disorder is 47, XYY syndrome. It is firstly noted in 1965 cytogenetic survey in male for violent and dangerous antisocial behavior and about 4.5% of the males in this survey were shown as XYY karyotype. The frequency of having this characteristic karyotype in general population is 1 in 1000 birth according to the sub sequent studies. The recurrence risk for the offspring would be 2XXY : 2XY : 1XX : 1XYY due to production of YY sperm at the second meiotic division or post-fertilization non-disjunction of the Y (Staessen et al., 2003). Structural aberration is the disordered in the structure and shape of the chromosome resulting from chromosomal breakage and error in rejoin mechanisms. Translocation is the transfer of chromosomal material between non-homologous chromosomes but there is no DNA loss. Three recognizable translocations are reciprocal, centric fusion (Robertsonian) and insertion. The one important thing in translocation is the balanced reciprocal translocation which occurs in two non-homologus chromosomes (Michael and Malcolm, 1997). In normal population, 1 in 500 are known balanced carrier and they are clinically healthy but they can give a problem when they reproduce. It is possible for the balanced translocation carrier to pass on the translocation in unbalanced form that can lead to miscarriage and physical or developmental problem (Munne et al., 2000). Deletion is the loss of a part of chromosome that can cause phenotypic effect because of the loss of gene. For a deletion to be seen in karyotype analysis, the amount of deletion must be large. It may also occur as a result of an unbalanced translocation (Barber, 2005). Although deletion of a small piece of chromosome is not a serious problem, deletion of entire chromosome is lethal. Therefore, only a few viable conditions are found in large deletion. These are the listed below; Adapted from Human Heredity Principles and Issues, seventh edition, 2006 Region of deletion Related disease 5p- Cri du chat syndrome 11q- Wilms tumour 13q- Retionblastoma 15q- (maternal uniparental disomy) Prader- Wills syndrome 15q- (paternal uniparental disomy) Angelman syndrome Cri du chat syndrome is caused by deletion in short arm of chromosome 5 and incidence is 1 in 100,000 births (Cerruti, 2001). A characteristic feature of the affected child is having a sound of cat like cry (Niebuhr, 1978). The phenotype is slightly different depend on their chromosome break point. There are two regions of break point in the short arm of chromosome 5 have been identified in this syndrome. Loss of chromosome segment in 5p15.3 results in abnormal larynx development and deletion in 5p15.2 is associated with mental retardation (Overhauser et al., 1994; Simmons et al., 1995). Prader-Willi syndrome and Angleman syndrome are caused by deletion in region 15q11-13 or by uniparental disomy (Ledbetter, 1981). If both copies of chromosome are inherited from the father, the child will have Angelman and from the mother, the child will have Prader-Willi syndrome (Horsthemke, 1996). The incidence of Prader-Willi is 1 in 10, 000 whereas Angelman is 1 in 20, 000 live birth (Clayton-Smith, 1993; Petersen et al., 1995). Characteristic feature of Prader Willi syndrome is sleepiness and Angelman is bouts of laughter (Zori et al., 1992). These cytogenetic microdeletions in the long arm of chromosome 15 can be visible by using either FISH (fluoresce in situ hybridization) or DNA analysis with probes from the deleted region (Nicholls, 1994). The others structural abnormalities include duplication, inversion and mosiacism and the rare structural variants are fragile site, heteromorphisims, isochromosome and ring chromosome. Cancer genetics Some of the cancer can be detected by karyotype analysis. The connection between chromosome rearrangement and cancer is evident in leukemia. The specific chromosome translocation between chromosome 9 and 22 is called the Philadelphia chromosome. That can be used as well defined diagnostic tool and prognostic factor. Moreover, this specific translocation is associated with other forms of cancer including Burkitts lymphoma and multiple myeloma. Chromosome translocation associated with haematological cancers Translocation site Type of cancer t(9;22) Chronic myeloid leukemia (Rajasekariah et al., 1982) t(8;14), t(8;22), t(2;8) Burkitts lymphoma (Margrath, 1990) t(8;21) acute myeloblastic leukemia (Oshimura et al., 1976) t(4;18) follicular lymphoma (Fleischman and Prigogina, 1977) t(4;18) acute lymphocytic leukemia (Oshimura et al., 1977) The proportion of leukemia with a heritable component has been estimated as 25% in monozygotic twin. Risk to sibs in childhood leukemia is 2- 4 times higher than the population incidence. The risk of a relative developing Hodgkins disease is seven fold higher than other (Kelly, 1992). Genetic counseling Genetic counseling should be offered to both parents and must give adequate time under appropriate setting. Depth of explanation should be matched to education background of the couples, outlining of clinical features, complication, natural history, prognosis and effective management (Frets et al., 1991). Simple Explanation of the genetic basic of the condition with the aids of diagram and recurrent risk calculation should be carried out (Sermon, 2002). Furthermore, genetic counselor can give the suggestion to reduce the risk of having disorder. The options are no further pregnancy, adoption, in vitro fertilization with pre implantation diagnosis, artificial insemination-AID by donor (egg donation), termination pregnancy, OR ignore and accept the risk (Zare et al., 1973). AID is performed for husband with AD trait or both are carrier for a serious AR (Taranissi, 2005). The important thing in genetic counseling must be non- judgemental and non-directive. The aim is to deliver a balanced version of the facts which will permit the consultants to reach their own decision with regard to their reproductive future. In UK, congenital disabilities act of 1976 legal action can be brought against a person whose breach of duty to parents results in a child being born disabled, abnormal or unhealthy. Prenatal diagnosis with selective termination of pregnancy became a reality in UK with the abortion ACT OF 1967 (Macintyre, 1973). AD trait is the risk to each child of an affected person is 1 in 2. Disorder has high penetrance, most dominant trait shows variable expression. AR trait for the carrier parents, the risk recurrence risk is 1 in 4 diseases, 2 in 3 chance of being carrier (Yoshikawa and Mukai, 1970). In X-linked recessive trait, if females are obligate carrier, one half of her sons will be affected and one half of her daughter will be carrier. If affected male reproduce, there will be normal sons and carrier daughters. Nowadays, biochemical tests may be available for carrier detection, but because of X inactivation few of these are absolute and this information needs to be combined with the pedigree risk using Bayes theorem (Markova et al., 1984). Conditions need for genetic counseling and investigation (Watson et al., 1992) 1. Infertility one in ten of all couples are involuntarily infertile, such a couple need chromosomal analysis to exclude a balanced structural rearrangement and Klinefelter syndrome. 2. Recurrence miscarriage one of six pregnancy ends as a spontaneous miscarriage. 3-5% of cases have a balanced structural rearrangement 3. Still birth 4. Perinatal death with multiple malformations Conclusion The benefit of karyotype analysis in high risk population provides the prevention and early management options to minimize the risk. As the genetic science development, researchers and clinician have more advanced diagnostic tool like multiplex PCR, SNP microarray, CGH (comparative genomic hybridization) to identify the far more complex chromosome abnormalities. Although karyotyping by FISH can detect both balanced and unbalanced translocation, uniparental disomy can only be detected by SNP arrays and high output sequencing. Despite the high cost, enormous benefit can be found for the society to evaluate the superior treatment protocols and genomic technologies for the future.

Government and Politics - The Wisdom of Solomon Can Provide Mid-East peace :: Politics Political Essays

The story of King Solomon's wisdom is well known and presents a solution for the conflict over East Jerusalem, which contains the historic section of the city so highly prized for containing many famous religious sites: time-honored mosques, various Jewish, Christian and Islamic shrines, the Wailing Wall, the foundation to King Solomon's Temple, in short, the "Old City." East Jerusalem is currently the loggerhead in the Mid-East peace process. The Palestinians, with the support of the Arab states, say that come what may they must have control over East Jerusalem. A strong force in Israeli politics is of a similar opinion, saying that they will not compromise on this issue, that East Jerusalem must be under Israeli control. Unless a compromise is somehow reached, it appears that more people will die in the violence in this region, soldiers will die on both sides, more protesters will be killed, more people imprisoned, civilians including children, old men and women, even babies, will die as a direct result of the violence. In order to avoid any more violence perhaps we should turn to the story of wise old Solomon himself for the solution. It is said that once upon a time two women appeared before him, both claiming the right to a particular baby, each saying that she was the rightful mother of the child. Solomon proposed that the baby be divided in two, and half given to each woman. Hearing this, one of the women said, "No, don't do that, let the other woman have it." Solomon, in his wisdom, then gave the baby to this woman who obviously valued the life of the baby above her own interest in the matter. Seldom can an example like this be applied in its precise form, but it can be adapted to fit the dispute over East Jerusalem today. Obviously a present-day Solomon cannot threaten to destroy East Jerusalem and expect one of the sides to declare, "No! Let them have it." But something similar can be proposed, a solution that seems just as wise as Solomon's. Both sides can agree to a UN force moving in to raze all those ancient constructions, dynamite the traditional sites, leaving not one stone upon another. What would this solve? Well, most importantly, it would solve the conflict over East Jerusalem - no more violence, not one more death.

NSync Essay -- essays research papers

The pop-R&B group, *NSYNC is taking the world by storm. Males and females alike appreciate *NSYNC’s great talent. With their individuality, music and dancing, and good looks, they seem to captivate and impress not only the teenage generation but older generations as well. The group was named *NSYNC after group member, Justin Timberlake’s mother, Lynn, realized that the last letter of each of the members’ names made up the word *NSYNC. It is easy to distinguish one member of *NSYNC from another. Group member Justin Timberlake is nineteen years old and is from Memphis, Tennessee. People recognize him by his good looks, and curly (and sometimes frizzy) blond-brown hair. Chris Kirkpatrick is the oldest member (also the shortest and has the highest voice) at age twenty-eight. He comes from Clarion, Pennsylvania. Joseph Anthony Fatone (Joey) is twenty-three and from Brooklyn, New York. He is easily recognized by his striking red hair and Brooklyn accent. James Lance (Lansten) Bass is twenty and from Mississippi. He has the lowest voice. Last but not least is Joshua Scott Chasez (JC) from Washington D.C, age twenty-three. JC has been dubbed, "Mr. Serious† by his group-mates. Formed in 1995, *NSYNC prides themselves on their â€Å"five-part-harmony† style singing, a cappella singing, performing, and precision dancing. A â€Å"five-part harmony† is a vocal arrangement made up of five parts. In *NSYNC’s case, soprano (Chr...

The Minimum Wage For Restaurant Workers Must Be Raised Essay -- Argume

"It is but equity...that they who feed, clothe and lodge the whole body of the people, should have such a share of the produce of their own labor as to be themselves tolerably well fed, clothed and lodged." -- Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776 The restaurant server is one of the most popular jobs in the country and according to the National Restaurant Association, currently, 1 in 12 Americans work in the restaurant industry and about 50 percent of all adults have worked in the industry at some point during their lives. The industry is clearly very large with over 13 billion workers, but overall, workers in the industry do not get paid very well. According to the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), the average annual salary for a server is just over $20,000. In fact, servers are twice as likely to use food stamps as the rest of the U.S. workforce and three times as likely to be living in poverty. The main reason for this is the existence of the tipped minimum wage, which since 1991 has stayed set at $2.13 per hour. Not many people even realize that the tipped minimum wage exists, but according to the DOL, servers in 43 states get paid less than the regular minimum wage hourly based on the assumption that the rest of their wages will come from customer tips. In fact, 22 states pay their tipped workers less than $3 per hour. Although tips can often lead to servers making well over regular minimum wage per hour, overall, tips are very inconsistent and are completely dependent on restaurant customers. Not only does the customer decide how much to tip based on his/her enjoyment of the dining experience, but also servers need busy restaurants in order to make good money. There is an ebb and flow to the restaurant busin... ...y-income-fine-dining-servers-20195.html>. Myotte, Maria. â€Å"Op-Ed: Restaurant Servers Can’t Live on $2.13 an Hour.† Yahoo! News. Yahoo!, 11 Dec. 2013. Web. 30 Oct. 2014. . National Restaurant Association. 2013 Restaurant Industry Pocket Factbook. Rep. National Restaurant Association, 2013. Web. 30 Oct. 2014. . Nayak, Rajesh, and Paul Sonn. Restoring the Minimum Wage for America’s Tipped Workers. Rep. National Employment Law Project, 2009. Web. 30 Oct. 2014. . U.S. Department of Labor. Minimum Wages for Tipped Employees. Rep. U.S. Department of Labor Wage and Hour Division, Dec. 2011. Web. 30 Oct. 2014. .

Legal Abortion

The topic of abortion is one of the most controversial of our times. It has caused countless deaths and several violent confrontations between the two separate parties of opinion. The fight between pro-life and pro-choice supporters has been long and brutal. This is because, despite what several people may believe, abortion is neither right nor wrong. It is a matter of personal opinion. In this way, each side can say with certainty that the other is wrong. However, the question still remains; should abortion be legal?Though some may disagree on this point, the fact is that legalized abortion is the only option that will protect the lives of American citizens. Therefore, present abortion laws according to Roe v. Wade should be upheld and maintained in the United States (Brown 2). Roe v. Wade was a landmark decision that legalized abortions in the United States. It was about a poor, pregnant woman who filed a lawsuit against the state law of Texas, which stated that abortions were ille gal. The case went all the way to the U. S. Supreme Court, which meant that the decision made affected the nation as a whole.On January 22, 1973, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Jane Roe and stated that â€Å"the 14th amendment guarantees an adult woman the right to seek a termination of her pregnancy until viability† (Guernsey 63). From this day on, abortions in the United States were legal. The definitions of the opinions taken on abortion are somewhat unclear to many people. Hopefully, the definitions stated below will be of some help in choosing an opinion. Pro-life supporters believe that a fetus's right to live comes first, before the rights of a pregnant woman.Pro-choice supporters believe that it is a woman's fundamental human right to decide when and whether or not to have the child (Lowenstein19). Nevertheless, while the pro-choice side fights the right to have an abortion, they make a distinction between â€Å"pro-choice† and â€Å"pro-abortion,† These groups want women to be able to choose an abortion if it is right for them. However, they do not necessarily believe abortion is the solution for everyone (Lowenstein 52). There are many reasons why abortion should be legal. The single most important effect of legalization has been the substitution of safe, legal procedures for abortions that formerly were obtained illegally† ( Jaffe, Lindheim, and Lee 147). One only needs to look into American history to see the results of prohibiting abortions to women. The violence which occurs today because of the pro-choice/pro-life conflicts is minimal in comparison to the thousands of hopeless women who turned to illegal abortions. Women, seeing no other solution to their problems, turned to â€Å"back room† clinics. These clinics were located in poverty-ridden sections of the city and their conditions were deplorable.The places themselves were layered in filth and disease. Inexperienced butchers using dirty and crude equip ment treated the women. As if these backroom clinics were not bad enough, there was an even more appalling decision a woman might face. If she were unable to pay the exorbitant price for the illegal surgery, she would often perform the act herself. â€Å"Knitting needles, coat hangers, antiseptic douches, and poisons were used most often† (Welton123). It is better now that women have a place to go where abortions can be performed cleanly with minimal risk.Legalization of abortion is the only choice no matter what side on takes in the debate. Women will try to do what they think is necessary to live as they wish, no matter what the risk. Each year 84,000 women die worldwide from failed abortion attempts (Lunneborg67) . Because of anti-abortion legislation, women avoid going to the hospital, often until it is too late, to avoid prosecution from police. In the cases of rape and incest, the very idea of being forced to have the child of the woman's abuser is repulsive. There are also cases when a woman's health is put in jeopardy by having a child at all.Forcing a woman to bring the child to term would be no less than attempted murder (Steffen 49). If a woman is forced to give birth to a child she does not want, if left in that woman's custody, the child could potentially face hatred and resentment from the mother for the rest of its life. In countries all over the world, children are found dead and abandoned in places as degrading as garbage dumps. The only effective method of preventing unwanted births is abstinence, and this is just not a realistic objective. There is no 100% effective form of birth control, and even men and women using birth control have unwanted pregnancies.Some women for financial, occupational, social, and maturity reasons, see pregnancy as cessation of their lives. There are no accurate statistics on how many women attempt or succeed in committing suicide each year rather than live with their pregnancies. Women will continue to gave abortions with or without government legislation, but with legislation, the conditions under which they have their abortions can be sanctioned and observed. If abortion is the right choice for a woman, she shouldn't have to worry about its safety. The procedure is perfectly safe. The earlier an abortion is done, the safer it is.Most abortions, about 95%, are done during the first trimester (Lowenstein 52). Less than one percent are done after the twentieth week, and usually only for medical reasons (Safety 1). According to the National Abortion Federation, having an abortion in the first three months of pregnancy is safer than giving birth to a child. Women hardly ever die from legal abortions-only one in two hundred thousand (Lowenstein 52). Women are seven times likely to die from childbirth than from a legal abortion (Maguire 1). Many pro-life supporters believe that abortion should be banned because life begins at conception and taking a life is unlawful.The individual sex cell consists of 23 chromosomes. It is only through combination, through merger, that the sex cells attain the full complement of heredity units that defines a human being (Shettles 17). The merger of the two sex cells is complete within twelve hours, at which time the egg is fertilized and becomes known technically as the â€Å"‘zygote. † The inherited characteristics of a unique human being has been established, and in no circumstances will it change (Shettles 17). At eighteen days, the heart is pumping through a closed circulatory system, with blood whose type is different from that of the mother's.The brain starts working at forty days. and all of the fetus's body systems are in place by the time it is two months old (Every child 1). Pro-lifers believe this evidence shows a fetus is alive. For these reasons, they feel the fetus has a soul and is a person worthy of respect. They conclude that aborting a fetus is the same as murdering a person (Abortion 3). Most pro-choic e supporters agree that taking a human life is unlawful, however, they argue that unborn fetuses do not constitute fully developed human life. The possession of forty-six chromosomes does not make a cell a person.Most of the cells in a person's body contain these 46 chromosomes, but that does not make a white corpuscle a person. As for the significance of uniqueness, identical quintuplets are genetically identical, yet they have personal identities apart from their genetic endowment. Even though a fetus might have a heartbeat and brain waves, this does not make a fetus a person. To be a person, there must be evidence of a personality. Dogs, frogs, and earthworms have all characteristics listed, but that is insufficient to make them persons Zindler 25). Another major pro-life concern is the medical hazards of an abortion. Pro-lifers believe that abortions have many negative physical and psychological effects. They say that even though abortion has been legalized, it remains a complic ated procedure that can potentially harm a woman's ability to bear normal, healthy babies in the future (Hilgers 152). The most common early complications of legally induced abortion are infection, hemorrhage, perforation of the uterus, and laceration of the cervix (Hilgers 153).There is also a pelvic inflammatory disease which can follow abortion, and happens up to 30 percent of the time (Lowenstein 44). Although the complications are physical, many pro-lifers say that the psychological effects are far more dangerous. They believe abortion has a particularly harmful effects on teenagers (Everyone's Biography 1). The Medical College of Ohio studied how teenagers were able to cope with abortions as compared to adult women. They studied thirty-five women who had abortions as teenagers and thirty-six women who had abortions after age twenty.They found there were two factors present in teenage abortions. First, people other than the teenager had control of the abortion decision. Second, teenagers are less knowledgeable about the procedure and may have false ideas about it. Also, teenagers were less likely to consult a professional before making their decision. The study showed teenagers experienced greater stress during the abortion (Lowenstein 45). Pro-choicers strongly disagree on this matter. It is a proven fact that legal abortions are now medically safe and simple.Teenagers, for example, are 24 times more likely to die from childbirth than from a first-trimester abortion (Carlson 25). Death resulting from legal abortion is a very rare occurrence and easy to measure. In the first trimester, less that half of one percent of all abortion patients experience major complications (Jaffe, Lindheim, and Lee 150). Of course abortion involves some risk, but so do all medical procedures. According to the American Psychiatric Association report published in Science magazine in 1990, there are no significant psychological aftereffects of legal abortion.Legal abortion requ ested by the woman does not cause emotional problems or depression. Some women may feel sad or guilty at first, but not any more or less than any other personal crisis (Lowenstein 53). In particular, teenagers who had abortions seem to behave more normally than others who gave birth to a baby. Teenagers who have abortions are more likely to graduate high school, go to college, and get good jobs (Lowenstein 54). The third most controversial topic on abortions involves so-called hard cases such as rape and incest.The first point pro-lifers make is that the law allowing raped women to get abortions would only affect a few women, less than 1 percent of all abortions each year (Guernsey 68). Pro-life supporters believe the damage has already happened-that of the rape. An abortion will simply cause more psychological and physical harm. Even though half of the fetus if part of the rapist, half of the fetus is part of the woman, too. They believe it is unfair to kill a being who was not res ponsible for the rape (Lowenstein 47). Their feeling is the same for incest.In cases where abortion is chosen, pro-life activists believe an innocent baby is killed for a crime its father commits. The father, instead, should suffer. Pro-lifers believe if abortion is chosen, it helps to hide the fact that incest took place and it might continue(Lowenstein 48). Should abortion be allowed in cases of rape and incest? Absolutely yes, say pro-choicers. There may be serious psychological effects from having a child that was a result of a horrible experience like incest or rape. Pro-choice supporters believe if the woman decides to raise the child, they say, she will have a constant reminder of the incident (Lowenstein 55).Surveys have shown many people would accept abortion in cases of rape or incest (Women 2). Medical research has not determined whether there are genetic tendencies toward sexual crimes. The child may carry some of those genes (Lowenstein55). In summary, abortion is a per sonal choice. No should be able to tell a women whether or not to have a child. Therefore, keeping abortion legal will ensure that situations that involve crisis or health risks to the mother or the fetus can be handled safely and legally.